International Journal of Supervision in Psychotherapy

Received: 15.02.2026; Accepted: 11.03.2026; Published: 09.05.2026

In the field of psychotherapy training, live supervision offers specific learning opportunities that extend beyond traditional forms of post-session discussion. By directly observing the therapeutic interaction, supervisory interventions can be more precisely attuned to concrete clinical situations, implicit decision-making processes can be rendered visible, and alternative courses of action can be collaboratively explored. At the same time, the use of live supervision raises methodological, ethical, and structural questions, for example, regarding experiences of evaluative pressure, the therapeutic relationship, or the protection of patients. Against this background, the present article aims to systematically examine experiences with live supervision within psychotherapy training. In addition to a conceptual clarification, didactic potentials as well as key challenges and contextual conditions are outlined. The goal is to contribute a differentiated perspective to the ongoing discussion on the role and significance of live supervision in contemporary psychotherapy training.

supervision, live-supervision, Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy, psychotherapy training

1. Mertens, W. (2017). Die Rolle der Supervision in der Ausbildung von analytischen Psychotherapeuten. In: Mertens, W. & Hamburger, A. (Ed.) Supervision – Konzepte und Anwendungen. Band 2: Supervision in der Ausbildung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 17–29.
2. Sulz, S. (2017). Supervision in der Ausbildung zum Kognitiven Verhaltenstherapeuten. In: Mertens, Wolfgang & Andreas Hamburger (Hrsg.) Supervision – Konzepte und Anwendungen. Band 2: Supervision in der Ausbildung. Stuttgart: Kohlhammer, 30–43.
3. Jakob, M., Weck, F., & Bohus, M. (2013). Live Supervision: From the One-Way Mirror to Video-Based Online Supervision. Verhaltenstherapie, 23, 170–180.
4. Sternek, K. (2022). Critical Realism: Epistemic Position in Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy. In: G. Stemberger (Ed.): Essentials of Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy. Norderstedt: Books on Demand, 21–33.
5. Bernard, J.M. & Goodyear, R. (2019). Fundamentals of Clinical Supervision. New York: Pearson.
6. McNeill, B.W., Stoltenberg, C.D. & Romans, J.S.C. (1992). The Integral Developmental Model of Supervision: Scale Development and Validation Procedure. Professional Psychology: Research and Practice, 23(6), 504–508.
7. Stoltenberg, C.D. & Delworth, U. (1987). Supervising Counselors and Therapists: A Developmental Approach. Hoboken: Jossey-Bass.
8. Yourman, D.B. & Farber, B.A. (1996). Nondisclosure and Distortion in Psychotherapy Supervision. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research, Practice, Training, 33(4), 567–575.
9. Ladany, N., Hill, C.E., Corbett, M.M., & Nutt, E.A. (1996). Nature, extent, and importance of what psychotherapy trainees do not discloset o their supervisors. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 43(1), 10–24.
10. Reichelt, S., Gullestad S.E., Hansen, B.R., Rønnestad, M.H., Torgersen, A.M., Jacobsen, C.H., Nielsen, G.H., & Skjerve, J. (2009). Nondisclosure in psychotherapy group supervision: The supervisee perspective. Nordic Psychology, 61(4), 5–27.
11. West, J.D., Bubenzer, D.L. Pinsoneault, T., & Holeman, V. (1993). Three supervision modalities for training marital and family counselors. Counselor Education and Supervision, 33(2), 127–138. https://doi.org/10.1002/j.1556-6978.1993.tb00275.x
12. Rousamniere, Tony & Jon Frederickson (2013): Internet-Based One-Way-Mirror Supervision for Advanced Psychotherapy Training. The Clinical Supervisor, 32, 40–55.
13. Champe, , & Kleist, D. (2003). Live-Supervision – A Review of the Research. The Family Journal, 11(3), 268–275.
14. Athar, M.E. (2021). Remarks on Using One-Way Mirror Supervision Method to Train Psychoanalytic Psychotherapists. International Journal of Supervision in Psychotherapy, 3, 97–106.
15. Scherl, C.R., & Haley, J. (2000). Computer monitor supervision: A clinical note. American Journal of Family Therapy, 28(3), 275–282.
16. Stemberger, G. (ed., 2022). Essentials of Gestalt Theoretical Psychotherapy. Norderstedt: Books on Demand.
17. Amendt-Lyon, N. (2025). Parallel Processes, Field Forces, and Reversed Roles in Gestalt Supervision. Gestalt Review, 29(1–2), 9–29.
18. Vîşcu L.-I., Watkins C. E. Jr., & Cădariu, I-E. (2021). Group Supervision in Psychotherapy – Development Stages, Development Phases of the Supervisory Relationship and the Supervisee’s Development Levels. International Journal of Supervision in Psychotherapy, No. 3, 7–27.